(B) A belief that the majority community should rule a country in whichever way it wants, disregarding the wishes of minorities.

The term 'majoritarianism' is directly defined in the Sri Lanka chapter: "A belief that the majority community should be able to rule a country in whichever way it wants, by disregarding the wishes and needs of the minority." Always quote or closely paraphrase the textbook definition in MCQ/1-mark answers.

(B) People belonging to one language community, regardless of where they live

The community government in Belgium is elected by people belonging to one language community — Dutch, French, or German-speaking — no matter where they live.

Source: Accommodation in Belgium, Chapter 1

The passage explicitly states: "This 'community government' is elected by people belonging to one language community – Dutch, French and German-speaking – no matter where they live." This is a unique feature of Belgium's model — the electorate is defined by language/community identity, not by geographic residence. Examiners expect the exact option (B) with a brief supporting line from the text.

(C) Power shared among legislature, executive and judiciary

Horizontal distribution means different organs of government at the same level share power. Legislature, executive, and judiciary exercise different powers and check each other.

The textbook clearly defines horizontal distribution as power shared among different organs of government (legislature, executive, judiciary) at the same level through a system of checks and balances. Option A is vertical/federal division; Option B is sharing among social groups; Option D is sharing among political parties.

(B) Careful calculation of gains and losses and better outcomes

A 'prudential' reason is based on prudence — careful calculation of gains and losses — and stresses that power sharing leads to better outcomes, such as reducing conflict and ensuring political stability.

The textbook explicitly defines "prudential" as "based on prudence, or on careful calculation of gains and losses," contrasted with moral reasons. Examiners expect students to recall this definition directly. Option (B) matches word-for-word with the textbook definition.

Source: Chapter 1, "Why power sharing is desirable?"

(B) The State Governments are not subordinate to the Central Government.

The passage clearly states that State Governments in Belgium are not subordinate to the Central Government — so option (B) among the given answer choices (which says "French-speaking community was given a dominant role in Brussels government") is NOT true.

Source: Accommodation in Belgium, Chapter 1

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The question asks which statement is NOT true about Belgium. The passage states that in Brussels, both communities have equal representation — the French-speaking community was NOT given a dominant role. The other options (equal ministers in central govt, community government by language group, State Governments not subordinate to Centre) are all confirmed true by the passage. Examiners expect you to match each option against the text carefully.

(C) Checks and balances

When the legislature, executive, and judiciary independently limit each other's powers, this constitutional arrangement is called checks and balances.

The passage from Chapter 1 explicitly states: "Each organ checks the others. This results in a balance of power among various institutions. This arrangement is called a system of checks and balances." Federal division of power refers to power shared between different levels of government (Centre and States), not between organs at the same level. Always distinguish between horizontal (checks and balances) and vertical (federal) distribution of power.

(C) Sunni Muslims

As per Lebanon's power-sharing arrangement, the Prime Minister must belong to the Sunni Muslim community.

Source: Khalil's dilemma, Chapter 1

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The passage clearly states: "The Prime Minister must be from the Sunni Muslim community." Students often confuse this with the President's post, which belongs to Maronite Catholic Christians. Remember the three key posts: President = Maronite Christian, Prime Minister = Sunni Muslim, Speaker = Shi'a Muslim.

(B) Vertical division of power

The textbook (Chapter 2) explicitly states that "vertical division of power among different levels of government is one of the major forms of power-sharing in modern democracies" and directly links this to federalism in India. Horizontal division refers to power-sharing among organs of government (legislature, executive, judiciary) — a different concept entirely.

(A) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Belgium amended its constitution four times, created community governments, and ensured equal representation — these measures directly enabled the avoidance of civic strife and national division.

The passage explicitly states that Belgium's constitutional amendments and community government arrangements "helped to avoid civic strife…and a possible division of the country on linguistic lines." The Reason directly explains how the Assertion came about, making (A) the correct option. Always check if R is not just true but also causally linked to A.

(D) (A) is false, but (R) is true.

The Assertion is false because tyranny of the majority harms not only the minority but also destabilises society as a whole. The Reason is true and correctly explains this broader impact.

• The Assertion is false because majority tyranny damages social harmony and political stability for all groups, not just the minority.
• The Reason is true — political instability arising from majority imposition affects every section of society.
• Since (A) is false, options A, B, and C are eliminated. The correct answer is (D).

(A) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Power sharing is the spirit of democracy because democracy requires consultation with people, giving citizens a stake in governance — which directly explains why power sharing is central.

The Reason directly explains the Assertion: the requirement to consult people and give them a stake in the system is precisely why power sharing is democracy's spirit. The textbook states that in a democracy, people are the source of all political power and everyone must have a voice in shaping public policies — making (R) a correct and sufficient explanation of (A).

(C) (A) is true, but (R) is false.

The Assertion is correct — Tamil groups did demand Tamil Eelam by the 1980s. The Reason is false — the Sri Lankan government never granted Tamil official language status or regional autonomy; instead, it passed majoritarian measures like the Sinhala-only Act of 1956.

The key is knowing that the Sri Lankan government did the opposite of what Reason (R) claims — it repeatedly denied Tamil demands for regional autonomy and official language recognition, which is precisely why Tamil groups escalated their demand to a separate state. Always verify both the factual accuracy of each statement and the cause-effect link between them.

(C) System of reserved constituencies for scheduled castes and women in legislatures

This represents power sharing among social groups. Reserved constituencies give weaker sections and women a share in governmental power.

The textbook explicitly states that power shared among different social groups — such as the system of reserved constituencies for SCs, STs, and women in legislatures — is an example of community/social group power sharing. Option A is judiciary checking executive (horizontal/checks & balances). Option B is states demanding revenue share (vertical/federal). Option D is political party alliance (among political parties). Only C matches social group power sharing.

Sri Lankan Tamils are those whose ancestors migrated from India to Sri Lanka in ancient times and settled there permanently; they are concentrated in the northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka.

Indian Tamils are those whose ancestors were brought to Sri Lanka by the British during colonial rule to work on tea and rubber plantations; they are mainly found in the central highlands.

Source: Power Sharing, Chapter 1

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• The question asks you to distinguish — so clearly state what is different about each group.
• Key points examiners look for: (1) time/manner of migration and (2) geographical location/occupation for each group.
• The source passage mentions these as two sub-groups in the ethnic communities map; use your textbook knowledge to distinguish them since the passage does not elaborate further.
• Keep it within 2–3 lines per group for a 2-mark answer.

Sri Lanka experienced a civil war due to majoritarian policies that favoured the Sinhala majority and discriminated against Sri Lankan Tamils. The two main communities involved were the Sinhalese and the Sri Lankan Tamils. Tamil core demands included recognition of Tamil as an official language, regional autonomy, equality in education and jobs, and eventually a separate independent state called Tamil Eelam.

Source: Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka, Chapter 1

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This 2-mark question expects two clear points: cause (majoritarian policies creating alienation) and demands (language, autonomy, equality/Eelam). Name both communities explicitly. Examiners look for the term "Tamil Eelam" as it shows precise textbook knowledge. Avoid writing a long essay — two to three focused sentences are sufficient.

A prudential reason for power sharing is based on careful calculation of gains and losses — power sharing reduces conflict between social groups and ensures political stability. It prevents the tyranny of the majority, which can undermine national unity in the long run.

A moral reason is based on the intrinsic value of sharing power — it reflects the very spirit of democracy, giving people the right to be consulted on governance and making the government legitimate through citizens' participation.

Source: Chapter 1, "Why power sharing is desirable?"

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Examiners expect a clear contrast between the two reasons — "prudential = practical/outcome-based" vs "moral = principle/value-based." Use the textbook's own language: "careful calculation of gains and losses" for prudential, and "spirit of democracy / right to be consulted" for moral. At 2 marks, one sentence per reason with a brief elaboration is sufficient — avoid lengthy examples.

Brussels presented a special problem because the Dutch-speaking people, who constituted a majority in the country (59%), were a minority in the capital city Brussels, where 80% were French-speaking and only 20% were Dutch-speaking. This created a contradiction — the majority community nationally was outnumbered in its own capital.

Source: Belgium and Sri Lanka, Chapter 1

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The examiner is looking for the specific contradiction highlighted in the textbook: majority vs. minority status flipping between the country and the capital. Two key facts must be stated — Dutch-speakers are the national majority but a minority in Brussels. Using the word "special problem" (echoing the textbook) shows precise reading. Mentioning the percentages (80% French in Brussels) adds accuracy and earns full marks.

The community government in Belgium is a third tier of government elected by people belonging to one language community — Dutch, French, or German-speaking — regardless of where they live in the country.

It has power over cultural, educational, and language-related issues.

Source: Accommodation in Belgium, Chapter 1

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• The question has two parts: (1) what it is, and (2) its powers — address both for full 2 marks.
• Key phrase to remember: "no matter where they live" — it is not region-based but community/language-based.
• Powers are limited to three areas: culture, education, and language. Don't add anything not in the text.

In a democracy, checks and balances refers to a system where power is distributed among different organs of government — the legislature, executive, and judiciary — so that no single organ becomes too powerful. Each organ can limit and oversee the functioning of the others, preventing misuse of authority.

Example from India: If the executive (government) passes a law that violates citizens' fundamental rights, the judiciary can strike it down as unconstitutional, thus checking the power of the legislature and executive.

Source: Democratic Politics, Chapter 1 (Power Sharing)

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• The examiner expects: definition of checks and balances + how the three organs limit each other + one concrete Indian example.
• The phrase "no organ becomes too powerful" is key — use it.
• Good examples: judiciary striking down a law, Parliament questioning the executive, President returning a bill. Any one suffices.
• Don't confuse this with federalism (vertical power-sharing); checks and balances is horizontal power-sharing among legislature, executive, judiciary.

After independence, the Sri Lankan government adopted several majoritarian measures that alienated the Tamil community:

1. 1956 Act: Sinhala was recognised as the only official language, disregarding Tamil.
2. Preferential policies: Sinhala applicants were favoured for university admissions and government jobs.
3. New Constitution: The state was mandated to protect and foster Buddhism.

These successive measures made Tamils feel denied equal political rights, discriminated against in education and employment, and that their language and culture were ignored.

Source: Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka, Chapter 1

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The examiner expects three distinct measures listed in sequence — the language act, preferential policies, and constitutional protection of Buddhism — followed by a brief statement linking these to Tamil alienation. Avoid writing a long essay; use numbered points for clarity. All three measures must be mentioned for full marks; missing even one risks losing a mark.

Vertical division of power refers to the sharing of power among different levels of government — Central, State, and Local. In India, this system is called federalism.

• The Central (Union) Government handles national subjects like defence, foreign affairs, and currency (Union List).
• State Governments handle local matters like police, agriculture, and trade (State List).
• Local Governments (Panchayats and Municipalities) handle issues at the village/town level — this is the third tier added through decentralisation.

Role of the Constitution: The Constitution clearly defines the jurisdiction of each tier, guarantees their existence, and specifies sources of revenue. Changes to this power-sharing arrangement cannot be made unilaterally — both Houses of Parliament and at least half the State legislatures must approve any change. The judiciary (Supreme Court/High Courts) acts as umpire in disputes. Without constitutional backing, lower tiers could be overruled by higher ones at any time.

Source: Chapter 2 — Federalism, "What is Federalism?" and "What makes India a federal country?"

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• Examiners expect you to name all three tiers with examples from the Union/State/Concurrent lists.
• The key point for the Constitution's role: it guarantees each tier's existence and powers — neither level can unilaterally strip the other. Mention the amendment procedure and judicial review for full marks.
• Avoid writing about linguistic states or language policy here — those are separate sub-topics and waste word count for this question.

When we say that majority imposition looks attractive in the short run but undermines national unity in the long run, it means that giving one dominant group all power may seem like an easy solution, but it alienates minorities and creates lasting resentment and conflict.

Evidence from Sri Lanka: The Sinhala-only Act (1956) made Sinhala the official language, sidelining Tamils. Policies favouring Sinhalese in government jobs and education marginalised the Tamil community. In the short run, the Sinhala majority was satisfied. In the long run, Tamils felt excluded, leading to civil war and severe damage to national unity.

Source: Chapter 1 — Why is power sharing desirable?

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• The examiner expects two parts: (1) a clear explanation of the statement and (2) Sri Lanka as evidence.
• Name specific Sinhala-majority policies (Sinhala-only Act, discrimination in jobs/education) — these fetch marks.
• Use the textbook phrase "prudential reason" if space permits; it signals you know the concept.
• Do not confuse "short run" (majority satisfied) with "long run" (national unity broken).

Political parties and interest groups in power sharing:

In a democracy, political parties compete in elections, representing different ideologies and social groups. This ensures power does not remain in one hand; over time, power is shared among different parties. When two or more parties form an alliance, they create a coalition government, directly sharing power.

Interest groups — such as traders, farmers, industrialists, and industrial workers — share in governmental power by participating in governmental committees or influencing the decision-making process.

Why competition is essential:
Competition among parties ensures that no single party holds power indefinitely. For example, in India, coalition governments like the UPA and NDA demonstrate how multiple parties share power. If one party misuses power, voters can reject it in the next election, keeping power accountable and distributed.

Source: Democratic Politics – II, Chapter 1 (Forms of Power Sharing)

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• The examiner expects two parts: (1) how parties and interest groups participate, and (2) why competition is essential — with an example.
• Key terms to use: coalition government, interest/pressure groups, competition, power sharing.
• The example of coalition governments (UPA/NDA in India) directly supports the point about competition leading to shared power.
• Avoid writing about other forms of power sharing (horizontal/vertical/social) — the question is specifically about parties and interest groups.

Power sharing is not merely a practical necessity but a fundamental democratic value. The moral reason for power sharing is that democracy itself is built on the idea that people have a right to be consulted on how they are governed. Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy.

A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise, who have to live with its effects. A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system. Thus, the act of power sharing is valuable in itself — not just because it produces better outcomes, but because it upholds the dignity and rights of all citizens.

In contrast to prudential reasons (which focus on reducing conflict and ensuring stability), moral reasons emphasise that power sharing is intrinsically right, regardless of its consequences.

Source: Chapter 1 — Power Sharing, "Why power sharing is desirable?"

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• Examiners want the distinction between prudential and moral reasons clearly stated.
• The key moral reason: people have a right to participate in governance; power sharing is the spirit of democracy, not just a tool.
• Quote or closely paraphrase: "A legitimate government is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system."
• Don't confuse moral with prudential (conflict-reduction, stability = prudential; right to be consulted, spirit of democracy = moral).
• At 3 marks, 60–80 words is sufficient — no need to list all four forms of power sharing.

In diverse societies, different ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups compete for resources and political influence. If power is concentrated in one group, others feel marginalized and alienated, leading to social conflict and violence — as seen in Sri Lanka, where suppression of Tamil interests triggered a prolonged civil war.

Power sharing is therefore a practical necessity because:

• It reduces conflict by giving all groups a stake in governance.
• It prevents majoritarianism, ensuring no single group imposes its will.
• It increases political stability by making all sections feel represented and included.

Democracies that share power develop mechanisms to negotiate differences without violence, making societies more stable and peaceful.

Source: Chapter 1 – Power Sharing; Chapter 5 – Popular Struggles and Movements

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Examiners look for two things: (1) the prudential reason — power sharing prevents conflict and instability (practical benefit), and (2) a brief example or contrast (Sri Lanka vs. Belgium works well). Avoid writing only abstract definitions; link the argument to the statement in the question. The phrase "practical necessity" from the question must be addressed directly. Three clear points with one example is ideal for 3 marks.

Belgium's ethnic composition was complex — 59% Dutch-speaking (Flemish), 40% French-speaking (Wallonia), and 1% German-speaking. Tensions arose because the French-speaking minority was richer and more powerful, which was resented by the Dutch-speaking majority. Between 1970 and 1993, the constitution was amended four times to create the Belgian model:

1. Equal representation in Central Government — Dutch and French-speaking ministers are equal in number; special laws need majority support from each linguistic group, preventing unilateral decisions.
2. Devolution of powers — State governments of the two regions have independent powers; they are not subordinate to the Central Government.
3. Equal representation in Brussels — Both communities have equal representation in the Brussels government.
4. Community Government — A third tier elected by each language community handles cultural, educational, and language matters.

These arrangements avoided civic strife and prevented a division of the country on linguistic lines. Brussels was later chosen as the headquarters of the European Union.

Source: Power Sharing, Chapter 1 (Accommodation in Belgium)

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• Examiners expect all four elements of the Belgian model to be listed — missing even one costs marks.
• Briefly mention the cause of tension (French minority richer, Dutch majority resentful) before the solution — this shows context and earns the introductory mark.
• The conclusion must link the model to preventing linguistic break-up — that's the direct answer to the second part of the question.
• Avoid writing a general essay on power-sharing; stay focused on Belgium's specific features.

There are four major forms of power sharing in modern democracies:

1. Among organs of government (Horizontal distribution): Power is divided among the legislature, executive, and judiciary. Each organ checks and balances the others. Example: In India, judges appointed by the executive can check laws made by the legislature.

2. Among levels of government (Vertical/Federal division): Power is shared between the Central (Union) Government and State Governments. Example: India's federal system divides powers between the Union and State governments through the Constitution.

3. Among social groups (Community government): Power is shared among religious and linguistic groups. Example: Belgium's community government gives power to Dutch, French, and German-speaking communities.

4. Among political parties and pressure groups: Competition among parties ensures power is not concentrated. When parties form alliances, they share power through coalition governments. Example: Coalition governments in India, where multiple parties share ministerial power.

Source: Forms of Power-sharing, Chapter 1 (Democratic Politics II)

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• Examiners expect all four forms clearly named with a one-line description and one example each.
• Use the textbook terms: horizontal, vertical/federal, community government, coalition.
• Examples from Belgium, India, or as given in the text are all acceptable.
• Do not confuse "horizontal" (same level, different organs) with "vertical" (different levels of government).
• Each point should be roughly equal in length — avoid writing too much on one and skipping another.

Belgium's Approach:
Belgium recognised its ethnic and linguistic diversity (59% Dutch-speaking, 40% French-speaking) and amended its constitution four times between 1970 and 1993. Key steps included equal representation of Dutch and French ministers in the central government, powers given to state governments, equal representation in Brussels, and a separate "community government" for cultural and language matters. No single community could make decisions unilaterally. This avoided civic strife and possible division of the country.

Sri Lanka's Approach:
Sri Lanka, with a 74% Sinhala majority, adopted majoritarian policies. The Sinhala community imposed its dominance, ignoring Tamil interests, which led to feelings of alienation, mistrust, and eventually prolonged civil conflict.

Lesson:
Belgium shows that sharing power respects diversity and strengthens unity. Sri Lanka shows that forcing majority dominance undermines it. Power sharing is essential for national unity in a diverse democracy.

Source: Chapter 1 — Power Sharing

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• Examiners expect a direct comparison — what Belgium did vs. what Sri Lanka did — before drawing the lesson.
• Name at least 3 specific features of the Belgian model (equal ministers, state governments, community government).
• The lesson must explicitly link power sharing → unity and majority dominance → conflict.
• Don't write vague phrases like "Belgium was successful" without stating how. Specific details earn marks.

(i) Two majoritarian measures taken against Tamils:

• Sinhala was declared the only official language (1956), disregarding Tamil.
• Preferential policies favoured Sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.

(ii) The Sri Lankan Tamils' demands for recognition of Tamil as an official language, regional autonomy, and equality of opportunity were repeatedly denied. This growing discrimination and alienation led several political organisations by the 1980s to demand a separate independent state — Tamil Eelam.

(iii) Sri Lanka's experience shows that refusing to share power with minorities leads to feelings of alienation and distrust. It can turn political conflict into a civil war, causing loss of lives, displacement of families, and severe setbacks to the social, cultural, and economic life of the entire country.

Source: Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka, Chapter 1

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• (i) is 1 mark — name exactly two measures from the passage; don't elaborate.
• (ii) is 1 mark — the key cause is repeated denial of demands; keep it to 2–3 lines.
• (iii) is 2 marks — examiner expects two clear consequences: internal conflict/civil war AND broader socio-economic damage. Use passage evidence ("thousands killed," "families displaced," "setback to social, cultural and economic life"). Avoid vague statements; quote the text closely.

(i) It was necessary because Belgium has two major linguistic communities — Dutch and French-speaking — with distinct regional identities. Giving State Governments independent powers ensured that neither community could dominate the other, and regional interests could be addressed without depending on the Central Government.

(ii) The 'community government' is elected by people of one language community regardless of where they live, and it has power over cultural, educational, and language-related issues. Unlike a typical state government based on territory, it is based on community/language identity, making it unique.

(iii) The Belgian model shows that sharing power prevents conflict and strengthens unity. By giving equal representation to both communities in the central government, granting independent powers to state governments, and creating community governments, Belgium avoided civic strife and a possible division of the country on linguistic lines. This proves that accommodating diversity through power-sharing keeps a country united rather than weakening it — as confirmed when Brussels was chosen as the headquarters of the European Union.

Source: Accommodation in Belgium, Chapter 1; What is federalism?, Chapter 2

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• (i) Focus on the reason: regional diversity + preventing dominance by one community.
• (ii) The key unique feature is that it is community-based, not territory-based — mention this explicitly.
• (iii) This 2-mark answer needs two clear points: (a) what power-sharing did in Belgium (prevented strife/division), and (b) the broader principle (accommodating diversity = unity). The EU headquarters example from the passage is a great supporting detail examiners appreciate. Avoid writing vague generalities — always link back to the passage.

(i) Lebanon's system represents power sharing among different social groups (communities) — specifically, key government posts are distributed among religious communities (Maronite Christians, Sunni Muslims, Orthodox Christians, Shi'a Muslims).

(ii) Khalil's elders, who witnessed the bloodshed of the civil war, believe the existing arrangement is the best guarantee for peace. They understand that without such safeguards, one community may dominate others, risking a return to violent conflict.

(iii) Khalil's argument favours majoritarian democracy, which can lead to tyranny of the majority in a divided society. In Lebanon, if the Muslim majority (now larger) wins all top posts, minorities may feel excluded, potentially reigniting civil war. The community-based system, though imperfect, ensures every group has a stake in governance, preventing conflict. For deeply divided societies, power sharing is more suitable as it provides stability and accommodates diversity, even if it overrides strict majority rule.

Source: Khalil's dilemma — Chapter 1; Why power sharing is desirable? — Chapter 1

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• (i) Examiners want the specific type of power sharing — among social/religious groups. Avoid vague answers like "federal" or "coalition."
• (ii) The passage directly states elders say it is the "best guarantee for peace" — quote/paraphrase this; don't add outside reasoning.
• (iii) This is a 2-mark evaluative question. You must address both sides briefly, then give a clear verdict with reasoning. Key terms to use: tyranny of majority, social conflict, political stability, power sharing as spirit of democracy. The passage's prudential reason (reducing conflict) is the core justification here.